Transformative Experiences of EFL Lecturers’ Professional Identity in Online Education

English teachers had to retrain and build a new normal in order to prepare for an online classroom while keeping their teaching pedagogy and professional identity as a result of the sudden changes brought by the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic in education. In this study, the effect of English teachers' professional identity transformations, attitudes toward online teaching was explored. The study's sample comprises 130 English as a foreign language (EFL) lecturers from a state and a foundation university in Turkey. The research data was gathered from a questionnaire, the Teacher Professional Identity scale, and a semi-structured interview with 12 volunteers. Qualitative data collected via semi-structured interviews were apportioned into pattern coding and analyzed through content analysis. EFL lecturers did not appear to be properly prepared for their online pedagogical and technological difficulties, which had a deeply corrosive effect on teachers' professional identities as they shift away from face-to-face education. The results showed that participants who were educated on EduTech during their undergraduate education or as professional development affected their perceptions of professional identity throughout the transition to online language teaching. Future studies can broaden the field of study by making use of exploratory action research, awareness of the teaching community, and continued professional development.


Introduction
In Turkey, some measures were taken by the Turkish Council of Higher Education (CoHE) to continue higher education, with more than 7.5 million students in 207 universities taking a break from face-to-face education in order to reduce the spread of the virus during the Coronavirus disease  pandemic. Academic staff have undergone rapid training on the management and regulation of virtual classrooms and universities' distance education systems. With this unexpected transition from the traditional classroom environment to the online environment in many parts of the world, teachers are questioning whether the adoption of online education will continue after the pandemic and how such a change will affect language teaching and learning.
In a serious transformation in terms of technology and language teaching, lecturers question their professional identities as well as their professional qualifications. The transfer of course content to digital, becoming more and more competent in using technology and the Internet, the struggle to involve students in the learning process, and the change in the concept of "office hours" have significantly increased the workload of lecturers. Within the framework of all these changes and effects mentioned, in this study, the possible effects of online education perceptions on the professional identities of English language instructors were investigated by asking the following questions: 1. What perceptions do EFL lecturers have of their overall professional identity in terms of their commitment to: a) student needs? b) school issues? c) personal growth and development?
2. What are the declared attitudes of EFL lecturers towards online teaching regarding their: a) attitudes toward technology in general? b) technology use in language teaching and learning? c) online language teaching and learning? d) online pedagogy?
3. Does a relationship exist between EFL lecturers' perception of their professional identity and their attitudes towards online teaching?
4. How are sociodemographic differences (age, gender, educational background, working experience) related to EFL lecturers' attitudes towards online teaching as well as their perceptions of professional identity?
5. To what extent do EFL lecturers' attitudes towards online teaching predict their perception of their professional identity?
6. What is the impact of online teaching on EFL lecturers' professional identity?
a) How do EFL lecturers approach the transition from face-to-face to online classrooms? b) Which contextual factors assist lecturers' professional identity during the online teaching process?
In this study, the basic concepts to be examined are internet-based distance education, online teaching and learning, and accordingly teacher competencies for online teaching. To interpret the change in the concept of professional identity, the language teacher identity, the concept of teacher professional identity, and language teacher attitudes towards internet-based distance education and the factors affecting teacher attitudes towards online teaching should be mentioned.

Internet-Based Distance Education
Online Education (OE) has been used as a complementary tool for curriculum development and both formal and nonformal education institutions have been actively involved in distance education in Turkey as well as in the world since the 1980s. In the transition from face-to-face to online teaching, teachers had to rethink how best to use screen time with students.
According to a study by Silviyanti and Yusuf (2015), most educators are optimistic about the use of technology in language instruction, but many lack the online pedagogy required to integrate it into their classrooms. As such, the consequences of bringing teaching completely online could be complicated, which could also change how teachers perceive themselves as professionals. Hampel and Stickler (2005) stated that the competencies used by a language teacher to teach language in face-to-face classes should vary in online classes. Based on this view, they created a pyramid model of seven critical competencies of an online language teacher. Likewise, Baran and Correia (2014), who created a comprehensive framework for effective online teaching competencies, stated that effective online teachers' competencies have changed as a result of the dynamic interaction between personal, pedagogical, contextual and organizational factors in educational institutions.

Language Teacher Identity
Based on all this information, as a necessity of today, digital technologies have led people to create their online identities and strengthen multiple identities (Stets & Serpe, 2016). Undoubtedly, EFL lecturers have also undergone constructive or corrosive interactions in their perceptions of professional identity in the rapid and sudden transition to online education environments. Therefore, Teacher Professional Identity (TPI) examined in this study was also under the influence of more than one variable in its essence. On the other hand, Hafsa and Borasi (2019) see online teacher identity as a part of a teacher's professional identity and state that the concept of repositioning teachers in online classrooms presents new challenges for teachers. Therefore, when teachers are forced to make a sudden and necessary change in their teaching, they are likely to reconsider their teaching views and beliefs. Teachers' beliefs about what is important in effective language teaching and what kind of language teacher they aspire to be embody their professional identity in an online teaching environment (Celebi, 2021).
Due to the increasing demand and interest in technology in education in recent years, the perception of identity in language learning and teaching has been affected by globalization. Darvin and Norton (2015) characterize this influence as a response to the changing social requirements of society and include identity as an inseparable main component with the "model of investment" they have created. The theory of interdependence, which also leads to an effective understanding of the MoI, recognizes that the members of a couple or group are interdependent and coordinated, and thus proposes that individuals must arrive at an outcome by considering their behaviour to maximize their rewards. In Van Lange and Balliet's (2015) definition, the theory outlines, explicitly or implicitly, how people's behaviour when interacting can influence the consequences. It was also emphasized that to interpret the outcome of an interaction, the dimensions of the power held by individuals, the needs, thoughts and motives regarding this interaction (Gouldner, 1960) should be taken into account.

Language Teacher Attitudes Toward Internet-Based Distance Education
Teachers' online education attitudes have a great impact on determining online classroom practices (Pajares, 1992). Supporting this idea, as a result of her study comparing face-to-face and online classroom practices, Hurst (2015) concluded that the physical presence of the teacher does not have an effect on the learning satisfaction of the students, and she calls this a "paradigm change" (p.39).
English teachers' awareness of technology, their motivation for personal use, their self-confidence in using technology (Aydın, 2013), their openness to change in pedagogical practices, their ability to motivate themselves and determine their own destiny (Salikhova et al., 2020), innovation or external and internal barriers to different method applications (Snoeyink & Ertmer, 2001) lead to structuring teachers' attitudes. In a similar conclusion, Martí (2006) endorsed that sharing similar positive and negative teaching experiences, comments and evaluations with colleagues increased teachers' cooperation in the work environment and undoubtedly made them feel more secure (p. 236).

Research Design
This study applied the mixed method design which is the incorporation of qualitative and quantitative methods to analyze data. The research design is explanatory; thus, data collection was conducted via two questionnaires and a follow-up semi-structured interview.

Sample and Data Collection
The study sample consists of 130 EFL lecturers working in a public university and a foundation university in Turkey.
Participants' characteristics such as age, gender, educational background, and teaching experience are independent variables in this study. Taking courses related to educational technology (EduTech) during undergraduate study and attending professional development training such as projects or workshops on EduTech or integrating technology into language teaching were also evaluated as independent variables in this study.
Two questionnaires and a semi-structured follow-up interview were used for data collection.
The sample of the study consists of 130 English instructors who taught completely online during the pandemic period at a state university and a foundation university in Turkey. Age, gender, educational background and teaching experience of the participants constitute the independent variables. Taking courses on educational technology in language education (EduTech) during their undergraduate study and participating in professional development training related to EduTech were also considered as independent variables. The scope of the research consists of two universities, a state university and a foundation university. 54.6% of the participating EFL faculty members work at Çukurova University, a state university, and 45.4% at Çağ University, a foundation university. In order to examine the professional identity, re-form process in online teaching, it is aimed to provide diversity between the professional EduTech training, work experience and seniority of the participants. Of the 130 participants, 22 (16.9%) stated that they took courses related to EduTech during their undergraduate education, and 76.2% participated in the professional development of educational technology in language teaching.

Research Instruments
The questionnaire (Karakaya, 2010) aimed to explore EFL instructors' attitudes towards online teaching and their use of the Internet and technology in ELT. The questionnaire has a total of 54 items, and the items examine how EFL lecturers perceive online classroom environments, their online pedagogy and teaching styles, and online language teaching perspectives. The questionnaire consists of 3 main headings, including the first part, in which demographic information is also investigated. Reliability coefficients were found by Karakaya (2010) as (r = .90) for the second part and (r = .86) for the third part, and this level is above the acceptable level. In this study, in order to ensure the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, the reliability coefficients of the sub-sections of the questionnaire were calculated for the attitude towards technology in general (r = .87), for the use of technology in language teaching and learning (r = .83), for online language teaching and learning (r = .89) and for the perception of online pedagogy (r = .91).
The second data collection tool, the TPI scale, was adapted from Cheung's (2008) Teacher Professional Identity Scale. The scale analyzed the professional commitment of English lecturers, investigating their commitment to university problems and student needs, and their commitment to personal growth and development. There are 17 items in the scale, which are given on a 5-point scale, and as a result of previous researcher reliability and validity tests, it has been revealed that the reliability coefficient values for personal growth and development was found as 0.80, 0.83 for school problems, and 0.84 for student needs. As a result of the reliability analysis of the scale used for this study, the reliability coefficient values were found as subscales for personal growth and development (r = .82), for school problems (r = .79) and student needs (r = .80).
A semi-structured interview (Simon, 2012) consisting of 7 open-ended sub-questions was conducted with volunteer lecturers who gave consent through the consent form after the questionnaires. The instructors were asked about the language teaching application adaptations in their online classes and their satisfaction levels about the educational practices and the online language teaching model in the transition from face to face to online education.

Data Analysis
Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to summarize the data and seek a significant relationship between variables. Independent sample t-test analysis was used to reveal the attitudes of female and male instructors towards the use of technology in language teaching and learning, and a comparison was made between online pedagogy attitudes and those who took and did not take EduTech courses during their professional development training or throughout their undergraduate study. One-Way ANOVA was used to assess whether English instructors' teaching experiences differed significantly from their views of technology use in the ELT. Multiple linear regression was applied to determine the effect level of independent variables on the dependent variable. Pearson correlation was also applied for the 4 Sub-Categories of the questionnaire to observe the relationship between each of the sub-categories of the TPI scale. Considering the number of participants, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was applied and p >.05 value was obtained; thus, it was concluded that the data were normally distributed. Therefore, parametric analyzes were performed since the distribution of the data was found to be normal.
Qualitative data collected through semi-structured interviews were separated by pattern coding and analyzed by content analysis to better explain the relationship between English instructors' professional identities and their perceptions and attitudes towards online teaching. In order to determine the degree of reliability among the evaluators, the themes were divided into categories with the help of two experts; one in ELT, the other in psychology. In addition, numeric codes were given to the participants to ensure the confidentiality of their data. To ensure the reliability of the evaluation, the interview transcripts, which constitute the qualitative data of the study, were examined by a peer from the ELT field and a psychologist who is competent in organizational psychology and educational psychology. As a result of the examinations, the researcher evaluated the emerging theme schemes and categories in the presence of these experts. According to Table 1, the mean scores of Pedagogy of Online Teaching are (X̄ = 3.35, SD = .33), the mean scores of Technology Use in Language Teaching And Learning are (X̄= 2.95, SD = .24), and the mean scores of Online Language Teaching and Learning are (X̄ = 3.85, SD = .40). Additionally, the mean scores of Attitudes towards Technology in General are X̄ = 3.31, SD = .21). The results revealed that the respondents scored higher on Pedagogy of Online Teaching and Online Language Teaching and Learning compared to other domains regarding the attitudes of EFL lecturers towards online teaching. In this subdomain, teachers expressed that OE saved time in teaching. 94.6% of participants thought they were competent enough to plan and manage an online lesson, while 50% of teachers believed the effort they had to put in online classrooms was excessive. Some of the participants (62.3 %) supported that English classes given fully online were not effective, in the meanwhile, 93.1% of the participants stated that English classes should be completed with both online and face-to-face formatting to increase efficiency.  Table 2, the mean scores of Student needs are (X̄= 4.42, SD = .60), the mean scores of School issues are (X̄= 4.43, SD = .63), and the mean scores of Personal growth and development are (X̄= 4.47,SD = .64). When compared to the other subscales of the TPI scale, respondents scored the highest on Personal Growth and Development. Responding to the items in this subscale, the participants stated that learning goals could be achieved through collaboration with other staff members. The majority (94.6%) of participating lecturers support lifelong continuing learning as teachers.

Inferential Analysis Results
One-way ANOVA showed that the difference between the mean age of the teachers and their attitudes towards technology was statistically significant, in favour of the 24-30 age group and the 40-50 age group in favour of the 24-30 age group (F (3.126) = 2.492, p = .02, p < .05). Furthermore, on the t-test results of the sub-category that includes items related to online pedagogy of the instructors participating in the research, it was concluded that those who took EduTech courses during their undergraduate education (X̄= 3.3806) had a higher average and their online pedagogy perceptions were more self-confident. Accordingly, it was observed that the test average of those who received technology adaptation training through professional development (X̄= 0.33511) was higher. By means of the t-test (see Table 3) conducted to compare those who took and did not take EduTech courses during their teacher education, it was seen that the groups differed from each other in terms of the online pedagogy subcategory (t = -1.965; p <.05). Online pedagogy perceptions of the participant instructors differed significantly from those who received professional development (X̄ = 3.36) and those who did not (X̄ = 2.75) on the integration of technology with education (t = -0.150; p <.05). As a result of the t-test analysis examining the differences between groups in online pedagogy perceptions, the effect size (d = 0.8) exceeded Cohen's (1988) estimate for a large effect.

Correlation Analyses Results
As a result of Pearson's correlation analyses, a strong, positive and significant relationship (r (128) = .545, p < .01) was found between perceptions of online pedagogy (X̄ = 3.35, SD = 0.33) and technology use scores (X̄ = 2.95, SD = 0.24). A weak, positive and significant relationship (r (128) =. 328, p < .01) was found between teachers' general technology use (X̄ = 3.31, SD = .213) and online language learning perception scores (X̄ = 3.85, SD = .401). According to the results of the correlation analysis between the TPI scale variables, a weak, positive and significant relationship was found between student needs and the English instructors' receiving EduTech education (r (128) = .237, p < .01). Likewise, the relationship between personal growth and development area and EduTech-trained English instructors was positive and weak (r (128) = .303, p < .01).

Multiple Regression Analysis Results
Multiple regression analysis revealed that attitudes towards technology in general, technology use in language teaching and learning, online language teaching and learning, and online pedagogy were significantly related to EFL instructors' perceptions of professional identity (F (4,125) = 31.634, p< .005), R 2 = .17). Online pedagogy and online language teaching and learning were statistically significant predictors of this significant relationship (p< .05). In addition, online pedagogy (β= .32) and online language teaching and learning (β= .33) also explained a significant portion of the dependent variable.

Qualitative Analysis Results
In analysing the interview data, research question six was referred to. Three themes emerged after the content analysis.

The Emergence of Purposefulness in the Transition to Online Education
Participants were asked whether they preferred face-to-face or online teaching, and (see Table 6) four out of 12 teachers stated that they preferred face-to-face teaching. On the other hand, two out of 12 respondents who indicated that they support certain aspects of online teaching, such as flexibility of time and space, showed a strong preference for online teaching. They stated that they would prefer face-to-face and online education together, if possible, in terms of health measures in Turkey.

Themes
Categories f

Purposefulness in the transition to online
Face-to-face instruction 4 Lack of student response 3 Change of classroom dynamics 3 Lack of in-person interaction 2 The remaining six teachers were uncertain about which teaching method they would prefer, and although they tended to believe that face-to-face teaching provides a more ideal learning environment, it was seen that they did not ignore the advantages of online education. However, they highlighted other possible barriers to learning online teaching, such as the lack of productivity that shaped their views. Here is an example of a participant's opinion on the online teaching environment: …In fact, since we switched to online education, I am more satisfied with the material preparation. For example, I can quickly prepare quiz games etc. But the places where I have problems are not the material or the course content, the problem is the course atmosphere. (P9)

Resistance Towards Risk Taking and Failure
When asked about their preference for designing online courses, eight of the teachers (see Table 7) explained that they use online language teaching tools as a basis for existing face-to-face courses or classroom-based course teaching. Such adoption and adaptation are highly probable because the majority of respondents indicated that they had received very limitedly and survival online teaching training before fully embarking on online teaching. This sudden and forced adaptation may cause an important step to be missed in creating the perception of online pedagogy. There are pedagogical challenges between language teaching in an online environment and face-to-face language teaching in the classroom; moreover, by their very nature, these two learning environments require different approaches. Lack of preparation may explain one of the reasons for this difficulty. Without examples of alternative methods that would work effectively online, they relied on the regular practices they used in face-to-face classes, but due to the lack of reaction and feedback from students, they continued their teaching with tools with guaranteed results, not practices or tools that touched different language learning areas such as speaking and writing. Below is a quote from a participant on teaching methods in online classes as an example: …I usually continue to use the (language learning applications that I applied in my face to face classes, e.g., Kahoot, Quizizz..

. These kinds of applications give guaranteed results for students (P10)
Nevertheless, it should be known that in the transition to online education, EFL instructors must respond to the expectations of new generation students, both in terms of the needs of the students and the professional satisfaction of the instructors. Moreover, it should be expected that OE will change in parallel and be meaningful in terms of applicability, as technology and the internet change and develop day by day. The findings of this study also show that the perceptions of EFL lecturers, whom both took courses in undergraduate education and benefited from vocational training during their profession, regarding technology and internet use, positively affect. Conscious and willing teachers who have undergone this training need continuous self-development.

Social Presence in the Online Language Teaching Environment
When asked how they define their presence as an English teacher and their social presence in their online classrooms, they shared a consensus on the importance of maintaining a social presence in the online classroom. They stated that in their teaching titles they attributed to themselves, as a teacher, they were confident in classroom management and in supervising students, and that they had sufficient field knowledge (see Table 8). Despite lecturers' confidence in their presence and knowledge of online classes and technology use, participants expressed their concerns about adapting to the online teaching environment as follows:

Discussion
The results of the TPI scale correlation analysis in the study revealed that the working experience and readiness of the EFL instructors and their competencies in EduTech showed a significant relationship. From this point of view, the professional development of teachers and their work experience in their profession can be mentioned among the effective and path-shaping factors in the reshaping of professional identity perceptions in the transition to online education.
The findings of this study also confirmed that a sense of community is an emerging need in teaching and learning environments. Besides, supporting research studies reveal that a sense of community is a valuable component of a successful learning environment (Baker & Moyer, 2019;Chatterjee & Correia, 2020;Liu et al., 2007). A strong sense of community is shaped by the goals, beliefs, and expectations of teachers, the institution, and students, enhancing teachers' individual well-being. According to Kocabaş-Gedik and Ortaçtepe Hart (2021), there is a link between teachers' emotional navigation and the conflicts between the "imaginary and existing practice community" (p. 11). The alignment of imagined and real communities provides more satisfying emotional navigation and softer emotional navigation against emotional labour during Language Teacher Identity construction.
Providing appropriate time and space to understand and engage with colleagues on a personal and professional level will help strengthen this sense of community. High efficiency in language teaching and learning can be achieved by establishing common values and goals and giving a sense of purpose to their joint activities, but as in all communities, "maintaining a cooperative community takes time and constant effort" (Celebi, 2021).
Student participation in online lessons and student motivation significantly affected the attitudes of English instructors in online teaching environments. When asked how English instructors recognized their Social Presence in online classes and whether it was important for them to have a social presence in the classroom, the answers given by two of the participants stood out.
… I believe that I am a confident, knowledgeable teacher, who makes preparations in a planned manner, enables students to acquire, apply and practice various skills as well as to process the input of the lessons, and give students self-confidence and the power to succeed… But in some online classes, this is not possible. I can feel very far from the adjectives that I use to describe myself. (PT1) Although PT8 normally has an active and extrovert personality according to her response, it was seen that she is concerned about the change in her social perception as an online teacher. This result supports the results of the study by Nazari and Seyri (2021), in which they examined the development of six teacher identities during the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result of the examination of teacher identity transitions, it was seen that tensions such as increased responsibility, low professional preparation, emotional labor, concept transformation to technology-savy instructors and especially weak representation of the teacher played a role in the perception of professional identity.
Multiple regression analysis confirms the relationship between the variables and explains the predictive power of attitudes towards online education on TPI. Online pedagogy and online language teaching and learning were statistically significant predictors of the test results (p< .05); correspondingly, Online Pedagogy (β= .32) and Online Language Teaching and Learning (β= .33) explained the significant ratio of the dependent variable. As a consequence, the null hypothesis was rejected since a statistically significant association existed between EFL teachers' professional identity and their views about ICT and their use of technology and the internet in language instruction. In support of this finding, Yaşar (2020) also discovered a link between English instructors' views of technology use and their ideal language teacher technology selves which indicated a link to their favorable attitudes toward the use of technology in the classroom. The conclusion to be drawn from this is that teachers' professional burnout during the sudden and even unprepared transition to distance education is based on the establishment of online pedagogy. According to the qualitative findings, the professional identity of the participants has an important role in their professional well-being as English instructors. Interview participants showed that they seek satisfaction and success in language teaching in different ways by improving their online pedagogy. Gouldner's (1960) concept of reciprocity norm, which is the starting mechanism of social relations, formed the basis for the content analysis of interview responses. According to the reciprocity norm (ibid), people tend to show positive behaviour in return for the benefit they receive. In this study, too, intangible responses such as social approval (Blau, 1968, as cited in Aydın Küçük, 2020), respect, helping, and obedience that English instructors expect in the teaching environment in OE. The distance factor was seen as one of the foundations of the change in the social structure, and online education pedagogy was considered "as a reflection of the components of sociability". To exemplify this situation with one of the participant responses: It can be concluded that the participant questions her professional competence, believing that she has lost classroom control and authority in the classroom in OE, which is the failure to provide the components of the reciprocity principle. In research by Lomicka and Lord (2007) found that participants' social presence is manifested when a virtual community, such as trust and cooperation, is created in a positive and supportive social environment.

Conclusion
All things considered, EFL lecturers didn't seem to be fully equipped for their pedagogical and technological challenges online. This, in turn, has had a professionally corrosive effect on the professional identities of teachers in the transition from face-to-face education. Beyond being able to use technology in daily life, being aware of the importance of using the internet and technology in language teaching is undoubtedly beneficial in creating online pedagogy. However, when the transition from face-to-face education to completely online education is examined, only the technological competencies of English instructors were insufficient to prepare them professionally for this change.
The teachers should be given the roles of who will design, provide and plan the lessons to be taught according to the socio-cultural aspects, skills and expectations of the students rather than simply adopting the technology, and those who will provide psychological and technical support in this process should be the authorized units to be established in the universities. Institutional support can be provided to teachers through teacher development units to be established at universities. These units can be encouraged to support group projects, exploratory action research, building an understanding of the teaching community of teachers, and supporting their continuing professional development.
The alienation that arises between the teacher and the student can be overcome with adaptations and additions that can be made in the process of digitizing the educational content. For example, methods such as task-based, projectbased activities or pair and group work can be added to the lesson plans to improve interaction and communication skills in language learning, thereby aiming to create a sense of community. Using breakout rooms on platforms such as Zoom, where the lesson is held, to give feedback in group work-oriented lessons can make the teaching process more effective and individualized. In addition to success in language learning, this can reinforce social-emotional learning by removing technological pressure on teachers and students. For EFL lecturers not to have to make decisions on their own when faced with the burnout and uncertainties they experience in online education, steps should be taken towards functional and realistic goals in the course planning process.
The conclusion that can be reached in the light of all these analyzes is that distance education changes the social reality at an increasing rate, based on developing technology. Thus, the balances in the social structure deteriorate and social problems arise. However, developments in online education will also bring solutions to problems.

Recommendations
It is hoped that current research will encourage further exploration of the relationship between OE and TPI attitudes. For this, the data collected by qualitative data collection techniques such as observational studies, focus groups, and group discussions can be used to reveal previously unclear and under-emphasized dimensions. Using case studies or action research can further help explore the long-term and linear impact of online education. Since the main variable of the research is TPI, it was thought that it would be more appropriate to examine teachers over a holistic approach. The changing emotional state or mentality, and the complexity of dynamic relationships in the social field (Merriam & Grenier, 2019) should be considered and should be the starting point for further research studies.

Limitations
The most important limitation of this study is that it was conducted in Turkey and the findings are unlikely to be generalized to other nations and their education systems. However, it is assumed that other countries may face similar problems during the COVID-19 outbreak, as an adaptation to online education during full or partial quarantine is not unique to Turkey.