A Causal Model of Learning Loss in the Midst of COVID-19 Pandemic Among Thai Lower Secondary School Students
Ittipaat Suwathanpornkul , Orn-uma Charoensuk , Panida Sakuntanak , Manaathar Tulmethakaan , Chawapon Sarnkhaowkhom
It is known that the COVID-19 pandemic led to learning losses among students both domestically and internationally. Therefore, situational and casual .
- Pub. date: July 15, 2024
- Online Pub. date: April 15, 2024
- Pages: 1155-1170
- 280 Downloads
- 762 Views
- 0 Citations
It is known that the COVID-19 pandemic led to learning losses among students both domestically and internationally. Therefore, situational and casual factors were examined to discover and understand them so that learning loss could be reduced or recovered from. This research aimed to: (a) study learning loss situation; and (b) develop and examine the causal model of learning loss among lower secondary school students affected by the pandemic. The sample included 650 Grade 7-9 students selected by multi-stage random sampling. The data was collected using a self-developing questionnaire as a research instrument. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, independent samples t-test, ANOVA, and structural equation modeling (SEM) through the LISREL program. The findings were: (a) Lower secondary school students had an average academic achievement learning loss at the moderate level with the highest mean of learning loss in mathematics (M=3.012, SD=1.074), and an average learning characteristics learning loss at the medium level (M=2.824, SD=0.842). Several situational factors had a different effect depending on the school size with a statistical significance of .05.; and (b) the causal model showed the learning loss of grade 7-9 students was consistent with the empirical data (χ2=46.885, df=34, p= .069, GFI=0.991, AGFI=0.964, CFI=0.999, RMSEA=0.024, SRMR=0.014).
Keywords: COVID-19, learning loss, pandemic, student, structural equation modeling.
References
Akyürek, E. (2019). Impact of using technology on teacher-student communication/interaction: Improve students learning. World Journal of Education, 9(4), 30-40. https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v9n4p30
Alam, M., Al-Mamun, M., Pramanik, M. N. H., Jahan, I., Khan, M. R., Dishi, T. T., Akter, S. H., Jothi, Y. M., Shanta, T. A., & Hossain, M. J. (2022). Paradigm shifting of education system during COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative study on education components. Heliyon, 8(12), Article e11927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11927
Angrist, N., de Barros, A., Bhula, R., Chakera, S., Cummiskey, C., DeStefano, J., Floretta, J., Kaffenberger, M., Piper, B., & Stern, J. (2021). Building back better to avert a learning catastrophe: Estimating learning loss from COVID-19 school shutdowns in Africa and facilitating short-term and long-term learning recovery. International Journal of Education and Development, 84, Article 102397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2021.102397
Asian Development Bank. (2021). Learning and earning losses from COVID-19 school closures in developing Asia: Special Topic of the Asian Development Outlook 2021. https://bit.ly/4cpANs4
Azim Premji University. (2021, February). Loss of learning during the pandemic. https://bit.ly/3Tl6fPH
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundation of thought and action: a cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 248-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90022-L
Bates, T. A. W. (2015). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Tony Bates Associates Ltd.
Begum, A., Jingwei, L., Haider, M., Ajmal, M. M., Khan, S., & Han, H. (2021). Impact of environmental moral education on pro-environmental behaviour: Do psychological empowerment and Islamic religiosity matter? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4), Article 1604. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041604
Blaskó, Z., da Costa, P., & Schnepf, S. V. (2022). Learning loss and educational inequalities in Europe: mapping the potential consequences of the COVID-19 Crisis. Journal of European Social Policy, 32(4), 361-375. https://doi.org/10.1177/09589287221091687
Boonk, L., Gijselaers, H. J. M., Ritzen, H., & Brand-Gruwel, S. (2018). A review of the relationship between parental involvement indicators and academic achievement. Educational Research Review, 24, 10-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.02.001
Brenner, C. A. (2022). Self-regulated learning, self-determination theory and teacher candidates’ development of competency-based teaching practices. Smart Learning Environments, 9, Article 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-021-00184-5
Cardinal, J. (2020). “Lost Learning”: What does the research really say? International Baccalaureate Organization. https://bit.ly/3TGkrnA
Carstens, K. J., Mallon, J. M., Bataineh, M., & Al-Bataineh, A. (2021). Effects of technology on student learning. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 20(1), 105-113. http://www.tojet.net/volumes/v20i1.pdf
Cho, Y., Kataoka, S., & Piza, S. (2021). Philippine basic education system: strengthening effective learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond: Philippines COVID-19 Monitoring Survey Policy Notes. World Bank Group. https://doi.org/10.1596/35649
Cleary, T. J., & Kitsantas, A. (2017). Motivation and self-regulated learning influences on middle school mathematics achievement. School Psychology Review, 46(1), 88-107. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2017.12087607
Coe, R., Weidmann, B., Coleman, R., & Kay, J. (2020). Impact of school closures on the attainment gap: Rapid evidence assessment. Education Endowment Foundation. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED612885.pdf
Conto, C. A., Akseer, S., Dreesen, T., Kamei, A., Mizunoya, S., & Rigole, A. (2020, October). COVID-19: Effects of school closures on foundational skills and promising practices for monitoring and mitigating learning loss. United Nations Children's Fund Office of Research. https://bit.ly/4clL1K8
Dayagbil, F. T., Palompon, D. R., Garcia, L. L., & Olvido, M. M. J. (2021). Teaching and learning continuity amid and beyond the pandemic. Frontiers in Education, 6, Article 678692. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.678692
Dent, A. L., & Koenka, A. C. (2016). The relation between self-regulated learning and academic achievement across childhood and adolescence: a meta-analysis. Education Psychology Review, 28, 425-474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9320-8
DiPietro, G., Biagi, F., Costa, P., Karpinski, Z., & Mazza, J. (2020). The likely impact of COVID-19 on education: Reflections based on the existing literature and international datasets. Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2760/126686
Dorn, E., Hancock, B., Sarakatsannis, J., & Viruleg, E. (2020, June 1). COVID-19 and student learning in the United States: the hurt could last a lifetime. McKinsey & Company. https://mck.co/3IGBa47
Đurišić, M., & Bunijevac, M. (2017). Parental involvement as an important factor for successful education. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 7(3), 137-153. https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.291
Engzell, P., Frey, A., & Verhagen, M. D. (2021). Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(17), Article e2022376118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2022376118
Epstein, J. L. (2010). School/family/community partnerships: Caring for the Children We Share. Phi Delta Kappan, 92(3), 81-96. https://doi.org/10.1177/003172171009200326
Farooq, M. S., & Asim, I. (2020). Parental involvement as predictor for self-regulated learning and academic achievement of students at secondary school level. Journal of Educational Sciences and Research, 7(1), 14-32. https://jesar.su.edu.pk/article/168
Fink, L. D. (2003). Creating significant learning experiences: An integrated approach to designing college courses. Jossey-Bass.
Fitzpatrick, R., Korin, A., & Riggall, A. (2022, August 19). An international review of plans and actions for school reopening. Education Development Trust. https://bit.ly/497aFPP
Ghavifekr, S., & Rosdy, W. A. W. (2015). Teaching and learning with technology: Effectiveness of ICT integration in schools. International Journal of Research in Education and Science, 1(2), 175-191.
Glossary of Education Reform. (2013, August 29). Learning loss. https://www.edglossary.org/learning-loss/
Gonzales-DeHass, A. R., Willems, P. P., & Holbein, M. F. D. (2005). Examining the relationship between parental involvement and student motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 99-123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-3949-7
Gouëdard, P., & Pont, B. (2020). Education and COVID-19: focusing on the long-term impact of school closures. OECD Publishing. https://bit.ly/3IHNf91
Hafızoğlu, A., & Yerdelen, S. (2019). The role of students' motivation in the relationship between perceived learning environment and achievement in science: A mediation analysis. Science Education International, 30(4), 251-260. https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v30.i4.2
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson.
Hammerstein, S., König, C., Dreisörner, T., & Frey, A. (2021). Effects of COVID-19-related school closures on student achievement-a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 746289. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.746289
Hanrahan, M. (1998). The effect of learning environment factors on students’ motivation and learning. International Journal of Science Education, 20(6), 737-753. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069980200609
Harmey, S., & Moss, G. (2023). Learning disruption or learning loss: Using evidence from unplanned closures to inform returning to school after COVID-19. Educational Review, 75(4), 637-656. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2021.1966389
Hazar, E., Akkutay, U., & Keser, H. (2021). Information, media and technology skills in terms of curricula, process and product in middle and high schools. International Journal of Technology in Education and Science, 5(3), 288-310. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijtes.252
Ikeda, M., & Yamaguchi, S. (2021). Online learning during school closure due to COVID-19. The Japanese Economic Review, 72, 471-507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42973-021-00079-7
Ilomäki, L., Kantosalo, A., & Lakkala, M. (2011). What is digital competence? EUN Partnership AISBL. https://hdl.handle.net/10138/154423
Jæger, M. M., & Blaabæk, E. H. (2020). Inequality in learning opportunities during COVID-19: evidence from library takeout. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 68, Article 100524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2020.100524
Kaffenberger, M. (2021). Modelling the long-run learning impact of the Covid-19 learning shock: Actions to (more than) mitigate loss. International Journal of Educational Development, 81, Article 102326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102326
Kasradze, T., & Zarnadze, N. (2021). Learning losses caused by the Covid-19 pandemic – a significant threat to economic development. European Journal of Education Articles, 4(1), 45-57. https://doi.org/10.26417/175nzz76a
Khan, M. J., & Ahmed, J. (2021). Child education in the time of pandemic: Learning loss and dropout. Children and Youth Services Review, 127, Article 106065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106065
Kivunja, C. (2015). Unpacking the Information, media, and technology skills domain of the new learning paradigm. International Journal of Higher Education, 4(1), 166-181. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v4n1p166
Kuhfeld, M., Soland, J., Tarasawa, B., Johnson, A., Ruzek, E., & Liu, J. (2020). Projecting the potential impact of COVID-19 school closures on academic achievement. Educational Researcher, 49(8), 549-565. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20965918
Li, S., Tang, Y., & Zheng, Y. (2023). How the home learning environment contributes to children's social-emotional competence: A moderated mediation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article 1065978. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1065978
Li, Y., Hu, T., Ge, T., & Auden, E. (2019). The relationship between home-based parental involvement, parental educational expectation and academic performance of middle school students in mainland China: A mediation analysis of cognitive ability. International Journal of Educational Research, 97, 139-153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.08.003
Locke, V. N., Patarapichayatham, C., & Lewis, S. (2021). Learning loss in reading and math in U.S. schools due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Istation. https://bit.ly/3wXZAn8
Moreno Rubio, C. (2009). Effective teachers-professional and personal skills. ENSAYOS: Revista de la Facultad de Educación de Albacete, 24, 35-46.
Moscoviz, L., & Evans, D. K. (2022). Learning loss and student dropouts during the COVID-19 pandemic: A review of the evidence two tears after schools shut down (Center for Global Development Working Paper 609). Center for Global Development. https://bit.ly/4agX0H4
Nadelson, S. (2006). The role of the environment in student ethical behavior. Journal of College and Character, 7(5), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.2202/1940-1639.1195
Nguyen, L. T., Kanjug, I., Lowatcharin, G., Manakul, T., Poonpon, K., Sarakorn, W., Somabut, A., Srisawasdi, N., Traiyarach, S., & Tuamsuk, K. (2022). How teachers manage their classroom in the digital learning environment - experiences from the University Smart Learning Project. Heliyon, 8(10), Article e10817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10817
Núñez, J. C., Suárez, N., Rosário, P., Vallejo, G., Valle, A., & Epstein, J. L. (2015). Relationships between perceived parental involvement in homework, student homework behaviors, and academic achievement: Differences among elementary, junior high, and high school students. Metacognition and Learning, 10, 375-406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-015-9135-5
Office for Civil Right. (2021). Education in a pandemic: the disparate impacts of COVID-19 on America’s students.. https://bit.ly/490itmC
Pal, I., Sukwanchai, K., Bhuridadtpong, A., & Pal, A. (2022). Impacts of pandemic on education sector in Thailand. Pandemic Risk, Response, and Resilience, 29, 457-469. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-99277-0.00016-4
Parker, M., & Alfaro, P. (2022). Education during the COVID-19 pandemic: Access, inclusion and psychosocial support, Studies and Perspectives. United Nations - Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). https://hdl.handle.net/11362/47741
Pelikan, E. R., Lüftenegger, M., Holzer, J., Korlat, S., Spiel, C., & Schober, B. (2021). Learning during COVID-19: The role of self-regulated learning, motivation, and procrastination for perceived competence. Zeitschrift fur Erziehungswissenschaft, 24, 393-418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11618-021-01002-x
Raymond, M. M. (2021, May 5). Learning losses—what to do about them. Hoover Institution. https://hvr.co/4coeLWU
Rousoulioti, T., Tsagari, D., & Giannikas, C. N. (2022). Parents' new role and needs during the COVID-19 educational emergency. Interchange, 53, 429-455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10780-022-09464-6
Rusticus, S. A., Pashootan, T., & Mah, A. (2023). What are the key elements of a positive learning environment? Perspectives from students and faculty. Learning Environments Research, 26, 161-175. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-022-09410-4
Sabates, R., Carter, E., & Stern, J. M. B. (2021). Using educational transitions to estimate learning loss due to COVID-19 school closures: The case of complementary basic education in Ghana. International Journal of Educational Development, 82, Article 102377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2021.102377
Salciccioli, M. (2021). Understanding and addressing disruptions to learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. CSBA Research and Policy Brief. https://bit.ly/4ahD7Q1
Salmani Nodoushan, M. A. (2012). Self-regulated learning (SRL): Emergence of the RSRLM model. International Journal of Language Studies, 6(3), 1-16. https://bit.ly/3VoEx75
Selvaraj, A., Vishnu, R., KA, N., Benson, N., & Mathew, A. J. (2021). Effect of pandemic based online education on teaching and learning system. International Journal of Educational Development, 85, Article 102444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2021.102444
Smith, C., Tani, M., Yates, S., & Dickinson, H. (2023). Successful school interventions for students with disability during Covid-19: Empirical evidence from Australia. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 32, 367-377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-022-00659-0
Takács, R., Takács, S., Kárász, J. T., Oláh, A., & Horváth, Z. (2023). The impact of the first wave of COVID-19 on students' attainment, analysed by IRT modelling method. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10(1), Article 127. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01613-1
Thomas, V., De Backer, F., Peeters, J., & Lombaerts, K. (2019). Parental involvement and adolescent school achievement: The mediational role of self‑regulated learning. Learning Environments Research, 22, 345-363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-019-09278-x
Toren, N. K., & Seginer, R. (2015). Classroom climate, parental educational involvement, and student school functioning in early adolescence: A longitudinal study. Social Psychology of Education, 18, 811-827. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-015-9316-8
Trias, D., Huertas, J. A., Mels, C., Castillejo, I., & Ronqui, V. (2021). Self-regulated learning, academic achievement and socioeconomic context at the end of primary school. Interamerican Journal of Psychology/ Revista Interamericana De Psicología, 55(2), Article e1509. https://doi.org/10.30849/ripijp.v55i2.1509
Tye, N. (2023). Engaging families after Covid: Reconnecting in the classroom. Bridging Research to Practice, 18(1), 61-69. https://doi.org/10.1108/PDSP-01-2023-0003
van Gelder-Horgan, K. (2016). Parental involvement in home-based education. Journal of Initial Teacher Inquiry, 2, 21-23. https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/12844
Wolters, C. A., Pintrich, P. R., & Karabenick, S. A. (2003, March 12-13). Assessing academic self-regulated learning. [Conference presentation]. ChildTrends, National Institutes of Health Conference, Washington, DC, United States. https://bit.ly/43wiIVl
World Bank, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, & United Nations Children's Fund. (2021). The state of the global education crisis: A path to recovery. The World Bank, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, and United Nations Children's Fund. https://bit.ly/48OpU0j
Zellman, G. L., & Waterman, J. M. (1998). Understanding the impact of parent school involvement on children's educational outcomes. The Journal of Educational Research, 91(6), 370-380. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220679809597566
Zhdanov, S. P., Baranova, K. M., Udina, N., Terpugov, A. E., Lobanova, E. V., & Zakharova, O. V. (2022). Analysis of learning losses of students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Contemporary Educational Technology, 14(3), Article ep369. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/11812
Zierer, K. (2021). Effects of pandemic-related school closures on pupils’ performance and learning in selected countries: A rapid review. Education Sciences, 11(6), Article 252. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11060252
Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 3-17. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2501_2
Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (Eds.). (1989). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theory, research, and practice. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3618-4